Gunneweg, Jan, 1982, The Origin of Eastern Terra Sigillata-A and Hayes' "Cypriote Sigillata",Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum, Acta XXIII-XXIV (Studien zur roemischen Keramik), Muenchen, 111-115
A distinct class of Late Hellenistic and Early Roman red-, brown- and black-slipped pottery with a light or dark buff fabric, eastern terra sigillata-I (ETS-I, with regard to its chemical composition), was, in 1980, traced by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) to eastern Cyprus. INAA, performed in Jerusalem at the Hebrew University's Archaeometry Unit and at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory at the University of California, showed that the entire ETS-I repertory came from the Enkomi/Salamis district in eastern Cyprus--today Famagusta. ETS-I is not the same ware as "ESA" described by the late Dame Kathleen Kenyon. ESA has either a buff or a pink fabric, whereas ETS-I has a buff paste. Therefore, ESA consists actually of two different classes of sigillata ware. After chemical analysis by INAA, the pink ware analyzed differently from the buff ware. Therefore, the chemical composition of the buff ware was named Eastern Terra Sigillata-I (hence ETS-I).
Eastern Terra Sigillata-I Plate
The manufacturer center(s) of Late Hellenistic and Early Roman eastern terra sigillata-I ware (hereafter ETS-I) were traced to eastern Cyprus. ETS-II, Roman pottery with a brown-slipped texture, was traced to the southern littoral of Turkey, i.e. to the Pamphylian sites of Side, Perge and Aspendos.
Some specimens of western sigillata had their origin in Arezzo in Italy. Again, others were found to have originated in Assos in Turkey. All the analyses were performed at the Hebrew University's Unit of Archaeometry except for a few that had been analyzed at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the University of California with the aid of instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). ETS-I is the name for a chemical group of a class of red-, red/black-, brown- and black-slipped pottery of which only the red- and red/black slipped version was classified earlier by Kath. Kenyon as Eastern Sigillata-A (hereafter ESA). Gunneweg et al. included in his study also the chronologically earlier black-slipped pottery which was proven to belong chemically to ETS-I, ranging in time from 180-150 B.C.E. The statistical match for ETS-I was found with local reference pottery from Enkomi (from Late Bronze and Iron Age periods, because the clay source used by the potters did not change in chemical composition). Local clay collected in Enkomi Village by Iz Perlman in 1972 also matched the ETS-I ware. A chronological range for each vessel form was proposed, based on the certainty that the various forms of this ware (uncertain prior to this INAA study) all belong to the chemical ETS-I group. A chronological chart for each sigillata form concludes this study.
The excavations at Tel Masos in the Negev of Israel, of the Iron Age I period, were a joint German/Israeli entreprise to determine the earlier settlement of the Israelites in the Negev. The author excavated part of the early settlement among which twelve ovens (Hebrew: tannurim) of various design and size, from three different strata, over the entire excavated site. The structural design of the ovens is different and various characteristics in form, size and set-up can be used to explain different functional purposes and even their dates. The factual position of some of the ovens was used to clarify some of the stratigraphical problems which arose during the excavations. One oven, with a lid and handle, is quite unique in Israel and might be used as a point of departure in connecting the Tel Masos people with foreign cultures, a link, yet to be established.
Hellenistic Brazier
Many Late Hellenistic braziers (oven stands) have been found in the eastern Mediterranean. Thirty-seven ceramic brazier fragments found in Israel were subjected to INAA in the hope to learn where they originated. The analyses were performed in the Archaeometry Unit of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. The date generally accepted for the braziers lies in the interval 150-100 B.C.E. Chemical analyses showed that 24 of the specimens had a chemical profile which is unfamiliar in Israel as well as in Cyprus. There is enough reference material from Israel and Cyprus on the data banks to state this with some confidence. Three braziers, decorated with animal figures instead of the usual bearded man figures, originated in the Ashdod and Akko environs in Israel, illustrating that also braziers were locally made in Israel. The majority of the braziers could not be traced to its manufacture centre.
The "Herodian" oil lamp
In this study, the 'Herodian' lamp, thought to be from Herod's period (30-4 B.C.E.), hence 'Herodian', was sampled from various Israeli sites and subjected to instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) to learn whether it was made in one or in several potter's centre(s). The bulk of the early type of lamps was found within the Jerusalem region, but also in Nabataean Oboda. The chemical composition was traced to the Motza clay Formation located in Jerusalem. This profile was corroborated by an independent match with reference pottery from ancient Jerusalem from the Iron Age II and from the Hasmonaean/Herodian and Mammeluk periods, covering 1600 years of pottery production. The chemical composition of this reference group has been used successfully to assign provenience to the early type of Herodian lamps. In fact, they all originated in or around Jerusalem, as a result of which, they can also be dated more precisely to the time span of C.E. 6-70 for sure whereas the lamps probably continued to be made locally until the Bar Koziba Revolt. The later type of 'Herodian' lamp may have persisted until C.E. 130.
The "Herodian" oil lamp
Pithos from Kuntillet 'Adjrud
Eight century B.C.E. pithoi (store jars) inscribed with a Hebrew script and decorated with figurine-like drawings of Jahweh and Ashera were found in Kuntillet 'Ajrud in the northeast Sinai peninsula. The texts mentioning Teiman and the use of Samarian inscriptions triggered the quest for determining the provenience of this pottery by subjecting the pithoi to instrumental neutron activation analysis. The results showed that none of the pottery was local to Kuntillet 'Ajrud, that the large pithoi came all from Jerusalem, while other ceramic finds were imported from the north of Israel and from the southern littoral of the Levant (Ashdod) which was not expected previously. This study was the beginning of a series of studies of interrelations between different populations in the southern Levant which all used the Negev desert to travel through (see Nabatean, Edomite, Negabite and Midianite pottery papers of the same authors (J.Gunneweg and I.Perlman, F.Asaro and H.Mommsen).
The many cult vessels found in the tempels of Philistine Qasile whose ancient name is unknown. Since Qasile is not considered to be part of Pileshet (the Land of the Philistines), the vessels were considered interesting enough to start a provenience study on their origin. The samples for a total of 69 specimens of pottery, were subjected to instrumental neutron activation analysis in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Unit of Archaeometry. Most of the Philistine pottery was of a local manufacture, whereas a minority was imported from Pileshet (the Land of the Philistines). The outcome of this study is of more than local interest. One of the points has to do with the settlement and the relations of the Philistines (and perhaps other Sea Peoples) with other peoples who inhabited Canaan in the 12th-10th centuries B.C.E. Other important secondary benefits for having reliable provenance assignment are, for example, to probe whether it is possible, to reclassify pottery not to style but according to chemical provenance; and by so doing, ambiguities in chronological assignements could be removed.
Incense burner stand
Nineteen Greek stamped handles out of a total of 85 of a 'Levantine' type storage-jar registered at Tel Dor were submitted to instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) to learn where they were manufactured. They appeared within the interval 175-130 B.C.E. The analyses of local Dor pottery as well as the stamped handles were performed at the Archaeometry Unit at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The results of this study showed that the chemical compositions of the jars match statistically reference materials from the northern coastal region of Israel, regions that were once part of Phoenicia.
Pseudo-Nabataean bowl
N.Avigad, at his excavations in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem, uncovered several thin-walled bowls with floral decoration. They became known as Pseudo-Nabataean Ware because of their resemblance to the fine Nabataean painted wares which are characteristic to the Nabataeans. Some vessels were indistinguishable from the real Nabataean painted Ware. Nine of the pieces found in Jerusalem and two from Nabataean Oboda in the Negev were subjected to instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) to learn where they were made. All 11 specimens proved to be of Jerusalem manufacture. Examination of the ceramic and numismatic context in which they were found in Jerusalem showed that all dated from C.E.6-70.
Mycenaean pottery is, as usually accepted, a product of import either from mainland Greece or from Cyprus. At Ekron, one of the five Philistine cities in Israel, a considerable amount of MYC IIIC:1b pottery was found, and it was thought a good opportunity to test this pottery for origin. Forty-four samples of Mycenaean and Philistine Bichrome pottery were subjected to instrumental neutron activation analysis at the Archaeometry Unit at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem to learn where they were made. The analytical data showed beyond doubt that MYC IIIC:1b pottery was locally made at Ekron. This "chemical finger print" became therewith a reference for other wares. The Ekron MYC IIIC:1b pottery which "looks" similar to that of Ashdod, analyzes differently, showing that the potters shared a common cultural affinity as well as a "know-how" to manufacture this ware with different clays.
This paper provides obvious evidence that articles of trade were shipped from Canaan to Cyprus. This may be a start to study the inter-relations between peoples of Canaan and the rest of the Mediterranean Basin during the Middle and Late Bronze periods on the basis of the so called "Canaanite Storage jar". A specimen of an elongated type of Canaanite jar was sampled from Enkomi in Cyprus and submitted to instrumental neutron activation analysis at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the University of California to learn from where in the Mediterranean this type of jar came. The experimental data showed that the jar was made in Canaan, more specifically, in Ashdod and its immediate environs. That the vessel was similar to Egyptian found store jars becomes again a good topic to be investigated by scientific methods.
Canaanite Storage Jar from Enkomi
In a note, published in the Israel Exploration Journal 38 (1988), pp 224-226, A. Mazar has pointed out that he agrees that this storage jar found at Enkomi came from Ashdod. He, further noticed the occurence of similar storage jars found in the "Ingot Temple" at Enkomi of a 'secure 12th century BCE' context and also found in Qasile Strata XII-X. However, there is a "but" to be clarified: Mazar's reconstructed globular form of the jar is not similar to that as depicted above. Our jar was reconstructed according to the minimal diameter of the shard as found which only allows to an elongated shaped_reconstrction which, indeed, occurs in much larger quantities in Egypt as rendered in our paper. Therefore, also the chronology, as suggested by Mazar, does not pertain to the 12th century BCE solely.
The gardens of king Herod seem to have been an important part of the architectural layout of his winter palace at Jericho in Israel. Various rows of pots were found in situ within the gardens, and these coupled with their specific form were interpreted as "flower pots". The only other site where these pots have been found is Pompey at the foot of Mount Vesuvius in Italy. The Jericho specimens were subjected to instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) at the Archaeometry Unit at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem to learn whether they were locally made at Jericho or imported. The data show convincingly that the pots were a local product of the Jericho potter who was either the first to make these vessels, or who imitated them from the western Roman Empire, all depending of the chronological setting.
This study was undertaken, because collared-rim jars, found at Laish/Dan (a site at the foot of the Golan Heights) have been considered an Israelite hallmark, and this being so, it was hoped to obtain some insight into the movement of the Israelite tribe of the Danites as they moved from the central west, where they had dwelled before, to the north of Canaan by tracing the collared-rim jars of Laish/Dan to the west of Canaan. The samples were submitted to instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) for provenience. Both, the Hebrew University and Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory performed the analyses. The results showed that of the 22 jars which have been analyzed from Laish/Dan, none was imported from the Danites' previous location in the west of Canaan. On the contrary, the jars were locally made at Laish/Dan, while some others seem to point to manufacturing centers to the east or north of Canaan. Three other jars had their origin in coastal sites of North Canaan. From the chemical compositions it was concluded that the collared-rim jar was a product of tribal manufacture, as corroborated by the distribution patterns of the jars, as well as their typological differences within their family.
In this study, performed by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) for origin determination of pottery, various pottery styles from the Negev in Israel, as well as stylistic "Edomite" pottery were analyzed at the Institut fuer Kern Physik at the University of Bonn, Germany. Also early Arabic pottery has been analyzed at Bonn, and all different pottery assemblages have been used to illustrate the importance of the Negev desert throughout the ages, especially of pottery of the Iron Age II period at the shrine of Horvat Qitmit in the Arad-Beer Sheba environs. The analyses showed that all Edomite specimens from the Horvat Qitmit shrine came from pottery which was of local Qitmit manufacture. This probably will help historians to study the importance of the Edomites whose history is vague in the various biblical descriptions.
The "Three-Horned Goddess" at Qitmit>
A provenance study has started on some 620 odd samples of Mycenaean IIIC:1, Philistine Bichrome, and Red-and-Black Ware pottery from 30 sites in the eastern Mediterranean, which were analyzed at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory at the University of California. Fifteen of these 620 samples are treated in this study. Mycenaean IIIC:1 pottery from Greece, Cyprus and Israel and Philistine Bichrome Ware are distinguishable in chemical composition by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Both pottery repertories are chemically traced to reference groups, and reflect the traces of Sea Peoples and Philistines of the 12th-11th centuries B.C.E. in interregional contacts, as well as unidirectional socio-economic trade. In the present case, the MYC IIIC:1b pottery originated in Mycenae, while Philistine Bichrome ware found at Tell en-Nasbeh was locally made there.
Thousands of Greek and Latin stamped handles have been found at various excavations in Israel. These handles belong to large amphorae in which a variety of foodstuffs were shipped from Greece, Anatolia and Italy. The stamped amphorae are often well dated when they can be traced by the means of specific stamps that are dateable in the country where they originated. When the stamp is dated, it can serve as an earmark to date stratigraphical levels in each excavation in which it is found, among which David's City in Jerusalem. The purpose of this study on Hellenistic and Roman stamped jars was to establish the existence of dated trade relations between ancient Jerusalem and distant countries. Y. Shiloh, the excavator of the City of David procured the Department of Archaeometry of the Hebrew University with the stamped handles for instrumental neutron activation analysis. Reference material from Rhodes and Thasos was at hand in order to trace the Jerusalem jars if they were to match the reference. The bulk of the jars were traced to Rhodes, one to Kos, and another (the Zenon stamp) was probably manufactured in Knidos or Kos since both are only 15 kilometers apart and require more sampling from these geographical regions to separate them .
This study is a continuation on the Negev desert district with all its people who settled and dwelled through it during the Iron Age I and II periods. Samples of Edomite, handmade Negabite and decorated Midianite pottery were subjected to instrumental neutron activation analysis at the Institut fuer Kern Physik of the University of Bonn in Germany to learn where they were manufactured. It was hoped to establish who were the lords of the trade in the Negev desert and with whom they had their socio-economic relations. It was shown that the nomenclature of the archaeologists for the abovementioned pottery repertories have to be reviewed in the light of the analytical results. Certain Edomite pottery came from Edom (Jordania) whereas other was made locally in the Negev. Midianite pottery was probably coming from Qurayya, a site 40 km to the south of Eilat in North Saoudi Arabia. The Negabite pottery is not only Negev ware (as the name suggests) but was also manufactured around Tawilan and Petra in Jordania. The Jordanian mountain plateau of Edom and the Negev of Israel were much more connected than hitherto believed.
Nabataean Painted Fine Ware
For more than two decades, many archaeological problems have been solved with the aid of pottery provenance studies which were based on instrumental neutron activation analysis (hence INAA). If clay were imported, and was used, unaltered, to make pottery, we would have no way of knowing whether it was the clay or the pottery that was imported. If the potter happened to introduce some impurity which could be detected, we might have a clue of what had taken place. Nabataean Painted Fine Ware pottery from Israel and Jordan, as well as clays and claimed "unfired eastern sigillata-A" pottery and clay from the potter's workshop at Oboda from the Negev desert in Israel, were submitted to instrumental neutron activation analysis at both Jerusalem's Archaeometry Unit and at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory with the purpose of determining its origin. The conclusive evidence for the manufacture of the NABPF repertory at Petra is provided by chemical analysis. The INAA analyses showed that the chemical compositions of the pottery wasters from the Petra kiln fitted with NABPF pottery according to statistics. Since ceramic wasters are among the best materials giving the chemical composition of clay used to make local pottery, it follows that NABPF pottery was locally-made at Petra. We further discovered that the Oboda kiln was used for the making of plain jugs and cooking ware from local Oboda clay. The vessels found within the kiln were probably from the Byzantine period. That so much other earlier pottery of sigillata was found within the kiln is explained by the fact that the kiln stood on a layer of rejected and discarded pottery as is seen in the nearby preserved bulk.
The pomegranate, a often used item in Nabataean pottery
Mycenaean IIIA and IIIB pottery was found in the beehive shaped tomb 387 at Laish/Dan and in the rectangular tombs at Akko, both situated in northern Canaan. This pottery was subjected to instrumental neutron activation analysis to learn where it was manufactured. We were able to establish that the general architectural differences in the form of the tombs also corresponded in a different origin of the pottery found within these tombs. The Laish/Dan pottery was traceable to Mycenae and Berbati, whereas the Akko Mycennaean pottery was traced to Nichories on the west of Greece. Both sites show a similar concept of a group of foreigners who had been stationed in Northern Canaan, accompanied by their families, and possibly acting as the trade link between Akk and Laish/Dan with Cyprus and the Argolid. The pottery and other artifacts as daggers and seals reflect the diseased's link with Cyprus and the Argolid motherland as well as with the west of Greece.
This work of the Iron Age en-Hazeva fortresses will be published by us in 'Atiqot, a publication of the Israel Antiquity Authority
Gunneweg, J. and Balla, M. 2002, Was there a connection between Busayra and the Arava? By means of instrumental neutron activation Analysis
Piotr Bienkowsky Busayra, Liverpool 2002The paper establishes the relation between the Jordanian site of Busayra and the Arava site of 'En Hazeva in Judah.
